单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,*,*,Chapter 4 Syntax,Syn,+tax:words combination,Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.,What is syntax?,-a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.,Transformational Generative Grammar(TG),Norm.Chomsky,the most influential linguist in 20,th,century,some important works:,(1957),Syntactic Structure;,(1965),Aspects of the Theory of Syntax;,(1981),Lectures on Government and Binding;,(1986),Barriers,(1993),A Minimalist Program for Linguistic Theory;,(1995),The Minimalist Program;,(1998),The Minimalist Inquiry,Criteria on good grammar,Observational adequacy,Descriptive adequacy,Explanatory adequacy,The ultimate goal for any theory is to explain.,TG differs from traditional grammar in that it not only aims at language description,but also its explanation.,Chomsky is much more interested in the similarities(language universals)between languages rather than their differences.,Linguists should attempt to find a grammatical framework which will be suitable for all languages;,Linguists should concentrate on the elements and constructions that are available to all languages rather than on elements that actually occur in all languages.,There are likely to be universal constraints on the ways linguistic elements are combined,Chomsky proposed that the grammars of all human languages share a common framework(Universal Grammar).,Categories,Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence,a noun phrase or a verb.The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories(traditionally,parts of speech/word class.),Word-level categories,Traditional and non-traditional classification,Major lexical categories:N,V,Adj,Prep.(serving as heads:NP,VP,AP,PP.),Minor Lexical categories:,Det,Deg,Qual,Aux,Conj.(modifying major categories.),The criteria on which categories are determined,Meaning(n.:entity,V.:action,A.:property/attribute.),Inflection(-s,-ed,-,ing,-,er,-,est,),Problems:no concrete entity,action as noun,same meaning but different categories,Distribution(sentence structure:,love,fog,moisture.,),Note:The most reliable criterion of determining a words category is its distribution.,Phrase categories and their structures,Phrase categories-the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories,such as NP(N),VP(V),AP(A),PP(P).,Two levels:word level&phrase level.,The structure:,specifier,+head+complement,Head-the word around which a phrase is formed,Specifier,-the words on the left side of the heads,Complement-the words on the right side of the heads,Phrase structure rules,The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule(rewriting rule),such as:,NP,(,Det,)+N+(PP)e.g.those people,the fish on the plate,pretty girls.,VP,(,Qual,)+V+(NP)e.g.always play games,finish assignments.,AP,(Deg)+A+(PP)very handsome,very pessimistic,familiar with,very close to,PP,(Deg)+P+(NP)on the shelf,in the boat,quite near the station.,():optional;:other options,Specifier,X Complement,Head,XP,The XP rule,Note:abstraction of all phrases:The phrase structure rules can be summed up as XP rule shown in the diagram,in which X,as a variable,stands for N,V,A or P.,Coordination rule,Coordination structures-the structures that are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and,or,etc.,X X *con X,-Coordination has four important properties:,no limit on the number of coordinated categories before the conjunction;,a category at any level can be coordinated;,the categories must be of the same type;,the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.,Phrase elements,Specifier,Head,Complement,Specifiers,-Semantically,specifiers,make more precise the meaning of the head;syntactically,they typically mark a phrase boundary.,Specifiers,can be determiners as in NP,qulifiers,as in VP and degree words as in AP.,Examples:P.47,Complements,-Complements themselves can be a phrase,they provide information abut entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head,e.g.,a story about a sentimental girl;,There can be no complement,one complement,or more than one complement in a phrase,e.g.,appear,break,put;,a sentence-like construction may also function as a complement such as in“,I believed that she was innocent.,I doubt if she will come.They are keen for you to show up.”,That/if/for are,complementizers,the clauses introduced by,complementizers,are complement clause.(CP),Subcategorization,:The features of a certain words complement are included in the head.,Phrase structure rules+,subcategorization,information=appropriate structure.,E.g.,appear,cut,put.,The XP Rule(revised),XP (,specifier,)X(complement*),Modifier